Gender Roles Of A Woman - 941 Words

I honestly get so tired of hearing how a man and a woman should act. My mother raised me to be feminine and like boys. Now that I am older, I realize it is not hurt fault. Her mother did the same. When I came out to my mother at 17 I was so confused as to why should didn’t accept me. She would often say things like â€Å"I did not raise you that way.†, â€Å"You are feminine, how could you like girl’s?†, and â€Å"So are you know going to dress like a boy.† Well needless to say, still gay, and still feminine. Now that I have taught my mother how that hurt me and how bad it made me feel. She recognizes that she should not people into stereotypes. Still to this day, I often think to myself who thought this. Who thought that I should always act like a ‘Lady’? The only answer I could ever come up with is society. I have seen gender roles control my life and others around me. I feel that as society we should break the gender norms and gende r roles. Each person has a sex, a gender, and a gender identity. These are all aspects of your sexuality. They are all about who you are, and they are all different, but related. Sex is biological. It includes our genetic makeup, our hormones, and our body parts, especially our sex and reproductive organs. Gender refers to society s expectations about how we should think and act as girls and boys, and women and men. It is our biological, social, and legal status as women and men. Gender identity is how we feel about and express our gender and gender rolesShow MoreRelatedThe Gender Roles Of A Woman975 Words   |  4 PagesWhen a woman refuses to hold herself to the limits and constructs presented by a certain society and culture to be the norm, she is immediately outcasted and seen as a problem instead of embraced. Anowa, who is the young lady protagonist in Ama Ata Aidoo’s short story, â€Å"Anowa†, does just that. She challenges the gender roles in many ways throughout the sto ry in order to push back against the idea that all women should accept the role as the passive bystander to her male counterpart that society andRead MoreGender Roles Of Man And Woman1668 Words   |  7 Pages From the beginning of the human race, gender roles of man and woman appeared to be straightforward with certain characteristics embedded in us. Women, being able to procreate, were sought to as nurturers, while men were to protect and provide for their family. Men were considered to be the dominant sex who lead, are powerful, and masculine, while women are considered to be nurturing, sensitive, and feminine. The stereotypes that individuals must encounter are visible everywhere from social situationsRead MoreGender As A Man And The Role Of A Woman932 Words   |  4 Pages Many people define gender as the range of characteristics pertaining to, and differentiating between, masculinity and femininity. In modern and traditional society, gender is used to teach the â€Å"role of a man and the role of a woman†. The role of gender in adolescent literature dates back to the first kind of literature for children, oral folk tales. On the beaches of Greece, Homer told the tale of Odysseus. A Greek king, who was strong, fearless and wise; whom traveled great lands and fought manyRead MoreGender Roles : The Man Or The Woman?1369 Words   |  6 PagesWho is supposed to take out the trash? The man or the woman? Gender roles have become norms within heterosexual relationships in our society. Beyond simple tasks being associated with gender—women washing dishes and men taking out the trash—power has also become tied to gender. Men have acquired an unbalanced hold of power that women have been denied. Ciara points out these unfair gender roles in her music video Like a Boy. To Ciara, men have been allowed to lie, cheat, be secretive, and come homeRead MoreGender Roles Of A Man And A Woman1493 Words   |  6 Pageswell, as gender roles origin start from an early age. As children we are taught the difference between toys and colors; blue is for boys having to be associated with being masculine and pink is girls having to be associated with being a soft and feminine color. Though gender roles aren’t always clear as let’s say how most people associate an action figure or a dream car/ cooking station, gender roles are a huge part of the society we live in today. The power struggle between a man and a woman has muchRead MoreGender Roles : Traditional Vs. Modern Woman1572 Words   |  7 Pages2015 ENGL 3700 Research Paper Gender Role: Traditional vs. Modern Woman In Virginia Woolf’s modernist novel To the Lighthouse, she inspects various themes, and the theme of female gender role is one of them. Through the stream of consciousness Woolf channels into the inner world of her characters and expresses these themes through their thoughts and feelings. A central motif of the novel is the parallelism of Mrs. Ramsay, the traditional woman and Lily, the modern woman. In essence, Woolf argues thatRead MoreGender Role Reversal? Analyzing Junot Diazs Drown and Sandra Cisneros Woman Hollering Creek1621 Words   |  6 Pagesï » ¿Gender Role Reversal? Conventional sexual normative values for males typically include an emphasis of attributes that include self-reliance, dominance, assertion, and a healthy appetite for heterosexual behavior. By contrast, those that apply to females usually include a submissiveness and dependency that is all too oftentimes easily exploited by men. In this respect, the body of literature analyzed within this paper--Sandra Cisneros Bien Pretty and Anguiano Religious Articles in Woman HolleringRead MoreFInal Paper1429 Words   |  6 Pagesï » ¿Gender Inequality Within Society Society has conformed our minds to view gender based on one’s role in society. This labels the person as a man or a woman and then classifies them based on the â€Å"roles† that society has assigned for each. Gender inequality is caused by the unequal perceptions or even the way someone is treated, based on them being a man or woman. It tends to be the result of what is seen as socially constructed differences of the typical gender roles. This is a social problem I findRead MoreGender Roles And Gender : A Season Of Madness By Hanan Al Shaykh950 Words   |  4 PagesGender Roles And Gender Stereotype Problems in society Gender problems are big problems in society. Although today s gender problems are better than before, it still cannot be resolved completely. There are many kinds of gender problems. For example, gender role, gender identity, gender stereotypes and gender-equal problems. The short story A Season of Madness, by Hanan Al-Shaykh, shows some problems of genders and society. In A Season of Madness, the author tells a story of a Lebanese woman-Read MoreIdentifying The Gender Stereotype Example773 Words   |  4 PagesTo describe the gender stereotype example, I have selected advertisement from the website of coloribus. It is the advertisement of the Johnson Johnson Company to promote the Johnson baby care products. It released on June 2009. It is picturized with the woman with her baby and saying that this company’s baby products are more suitable for the small babies’ skin. I found this ad online Johnson’s baby product advertisements. I have the photo of the advert isement at the end of the writing part. And

The Financial Crisis Of Russia - 3538 Words

Russia was one of the countries that promptly reacted to the global financial crisis. The main effect of the crisis in Russia came in the beginning of 2009, and the Government started the realization of an unprecedented Anti-crisis program. Despite the fact that Russia had the largest fiscal stimulus in G20 countries, the outcome of the anti-crisis program was one of the least efficient. One of the reasons why the economic policy did not bring expected results was that the government bailed out corporations and banks basing the choice on political influence rather than on the efficiency considerations. The bailout strategy in Russia during the crisis will be compared to the government support of troubled companies in the United States in†¦show more content†¦The Russian Ruble experienced significant depreciation in the result of 30-40% decrease in oil, natural gas, and metal prices and a significant â€Å"deterioration in the private capital account† . Outflow of the capital from Russia demonstrated low confidence of investors. And as a consequence, the Russian financial market sharply went down. In 2009 Russian GDP fell by a record 7.9%, manufacturing - by 10.8%, unemployment rate increased from 6.3% in 2008 to 8.4% in 2009 , and the interest rates increased. People felt panic because of the memories about difficult times of the Russian default of 1998 . When the crisis hit the Russian economy in fall 2008 – beginning 2009, the Government realized the need for prompt measures. According to the Keynesian theory, the countercyclical fiscal policy, i.e. deficit spending, is one of the actions necessary to help the nation come out of the recession. The Russian Government announced the realization of the Anti-crisis program combining both monetary and fiscal policy actions. In particular, fiscal policy was supposed to create the market for business output, decrease unemployment, raise profitability, and increase business optimism. The Russian response to the crisis was considered â€Å"broadly in line† with programs implemented by many OECD countries. The fiscal policy actions in Russia involved increase of spending on the sectors

Law of Contract Market Value

Question: Discuss about the Law of Contract for Market Value. Answer: 1(a): The first question, the issue is on the basis of the fact that Jane had offered to give her sports car to Jack as she's going abroad. Although the market value of the car is nearly $25,000 but Jane had not mentioned any consideration for the car. As the offer made by Jane has been accepted by Jack, the issue is if the promise made by Jane is legally enforceable and if this promise can be enforced by Jack. Under the contract law, there are certain necessary elements that have to be present due to which any given becomes legally enforceable. These elements include offer and acceptance. Similarly, one such element is consideration. The law of contract provides that they should be consideration present to support the promise made by the other party. In this regard the law provides that consideration can be in the form of money and similarly can also be a promise to do or not to a particular thing (Atiyah, 2000). According to the law, past consideration is not treated as valid (Re McArdle, 1951). In this case also, Jack has not supplied any consideration in return of the promise made by Jane to give her sports car. The result is that Jack does not have an enforceable agreement. (b): Jane has made a promise according to which she is going to sell her sports car to Jack and in return, Jack is going to pay the price of $25,000. This offer has been accepted by Jack. Therefore, it has to be considered in this question if Jack has an enforceable promise against Jane. In other words, if a contract has been created between Jane and Jack? In order to decide this issue, the basic requirements that are necessary in a legally enforceable contract are present in this case. A valid contract is not only an agreement created between the parties. For creating a valid contract, the law requires that six necessary elements should be present in the agreement due to which it becomes legally enforceable or a valid contract. Therefore, one party should make an offer and the other party should accept it (Beatson, Burrows and Cartwright, 2010). They should be consideration present and at the same time, it should be the intention of the parties to create a legal relationship and the party should also have the capacity to do so. In the present case, all the necessary elements are present. Jane had made an offer at the same as been accepted by Jack. The consideration of $25,000 is also present. This is also the estimated market value of the car. The result is that in this case Jack has an enforceable agreement with Jane. (c) The issue with this case deals with the adequacy of consideration. An offer has been made by Jane according to which, she is going to sell her sports car at a price of $2500. However in reality, the market value of the car is around $25,000. In view of these facts, it needs to be decided if the agreement created between Jane and Jack can be termed as legally enforceable, especially in view of the fact that the parties have mentioned very low price for the car. Therefore it becomes significant to consider if the consideration supplied by the parties is adequate or if due to the lack of adequate consideration, the contract cannot be enforced (Collins, 2003). For dealing with such a case, the law contract is clearly mentioned that the adequacy of consideration does not affect the validity of the agreement. In this regard, the traditional rule provides that while it is necessary that sufficient consideration should be present but it is not necessary that adequate consideration should also be supplied. It is not required under the law contract that the consideration present in the agreement should be whether the market value of the goods or services provided under the contract. For this purpose, the law of contract requires that the consideration it be something real. Therefore consideration should be something that has some value (Chappell v Nestle, 1960). Even if it has been decided by the parties that in the return of a large house, a price of one dollar will be paid, it will be considered as sufficient consideration although it may not be an adequate consideration. It is not for the courts to decide if the parties had a good or a bad ba rgain under the contract. Although in common language, adequacy and sufficiency are the terms that are used interchangeably but in case of the law of contract, adequacy is used for mentioning the circumstances where the price paid in return is not equal in value to the thing that was received by the other party. However, the decision has to be made by the parties to the contract what can be an adequate consideration in return of the promise made under the agreement. Therefore, even if adequate consideration is not present, the validity of the contract is not affected by it (McKendrick, 2009). Consequently a bona fide consideration has been supplied by the parties under the contract, the court will not go into the question if there is full and ample consideration present in the contract. According to the general rule, adequate consideration is not necessary for the formation of a valid contract and the only requirement is of sufficient consideration. Any consideration having some value is considered as suffici ent. Therefore, the law provides that morality and natural love and affection are not treated as sufficient consideration and therefore cannot support a promise made under an agreement. How in the present case, sufficient consideration has been supplied by Jack, although the consideration is not adequate. However this fact does not affect the validity of the contract created between Jane and Jack. Therefore an enforceable agreement is present. 2: According to the issue that has to be decided in this case, it needs to be considered if the they promised that was made by the fire for paying additional US $3 million to the shipbuilder can be legally enforced or if this amount can be recovered by the buyer from the shipbuilder. In order to deal with the, the contract law rules related with consideration need to be applied. Under the contract law, consideration is the exchange of a thing for the purpose of forming a legally enforceable contract. In all valid contracts, consideration should be present. As a result, gratuitous promises are not considered as being legally enforceable (Peel and Treitel, 2011). In this regard, the traditional role of the contract law was that performing an existing duty was not treated as a good consideration to support a new promise for paying an additional benefit. However, there have been certain changes made to the general rule. The existing duty rule provides that by performing a pre-existing duty, it cannot be said that a good consideration has been supplied for any variation in the terms of the contract, according to which an additional benefit has to be provided. When the promisee has only performed their legal duty imposed by a pre-existing contract, the performance is not treated as a good consideration. Therefore when the parties to the contract have already agreed regarding something in accordance with the contract, according to the law, the terms of such a contract cannot be varied if a new consideration is not provided for it. Therefore, the legal position is that when there is already a contractual duty imposed on the promisee for doing something, the law does not allow the promisee to demand any extra be nefit under the contract. The basis for the rule was provided by the decision given by the court in Stilk v Myrick (1809). However this case only presents the traditional approach that was adopted under the contract law regarding the existing duty rule. The brief facts of this case are that Stilk, the plaintiff was an employee of the shipowner Myrick and had entered into a contract to work on the ship. It was mentioned in this contract that Myrick will pay 5 pounds per month to Stilk during the period, the ship remained on the sea. During the voyage of the ship, two members of the crew deserted the ship and any replacement for these crew members was not found. Under these circumstances, Myrick made a promise to the rest of the members of the crew that the wages of the two crew members who had deserted the ship will be given to them if apart from fulfilling their own duties, the crew also perform the duties of the two deserters. But when the ship arrived at its home port, London Myrick refused to make this payment to the remaining crew members. As a result, Myrick was sued by Stilk for the recovery of this amount. The issue before the court was if the remaining members of the crew of the ship can enforce this promise according to which, the wages of the two crew members who had deserted the ship will be given to them. It was argued by the plaintiff that this promise had been made by the dependent in return of the additional labor done by them. On the other hand, the argument of the defendant was that no fresh consideration has been provided by the rest of the members regarding the new promise to pay them the wages of the two deserters. The defendant also argued that the crew members already had argued the to make sure that the ship is brought to his home port as mentioned in the original contract. The defendant tried to rely on the pre-existing rule according to which, if the parties had entered into a contract for doing something, the terms of this contract cannot be changed without a fresh consideration. Under these circumstances, the decision of the court was that the rest of the crew membe rs cannot enforce the promise and therefore, they cannot claim the wages of the two deserting crew members. Since the promise made by Myrick was not legally enforceable. However there was a significant change as a result of the decision given in Williams v Roffey Bros (1990). The court had relied on the practical benefit rule in order to describe a few present in this case. Similarly, a new approach was adopted by the courts in context of the existing duty rule. In this case, an agreement was created between the building contractors and the house owner. According to this agreement, 37 flats had to be renovated. The building contractor entered into a subcontract with the carpenter Williams. This contract provided that the defendant building contractor will pay an amount of 20,000 for doing the carpentry work in the flats this amount was to be paid in installments. After some part of the work was completed, a sum of 16,200 was paid to Williams by the defendant. But at this point, William faced financial difficulties and was not in a position complete the work on time. The parties agreed that the price that has been decided in the original contract was too low. As a result, a promise was made by the defendant that an additional amount of 575 will be paid on the completion of carpentry work in each flat on time. According to the contract that was created between the building contractors in the house owners, there was a penalty clause applicable if there was any delay in completing the work. Therefore in order to avoid this penalty clause, the defendants agreed to pay additional amount to Williams. But when this work was completed, the defendant refused to make this payment. Consequently, the court had to decide if the performance of an existing duty can be treated as the valid consideration for the promise to pay additional money. The court stated that the defendants were legally obliged to pay the extra money promised by them. In this case, the consideration has been provided by the practical benefits that were going to be achieved by the defendants as a result of the completion of the work on time, like the avoidance of the penalty clause present in the contract with the house owners. In the present case also, the buyers had made a promise to pay additional amount of money for the completion of the tanker on time. The buyers already had a charter for the tanker. Therefore, by completion of the tanker on time, the buyer is going to achieve practical advantages. Under these circumstances, the promise made by the buyer to pay additional money to the shipbuilders is legally enforceable and therefore the one cannot recover the extra amount of US $3 million from the shipbuilders. References Atiyah, P.S. 2000 An Introduction to the Law of Contract, Clarendon Beatson, J. Burrows A. and Cartwright, J. 2010 Anson's Law of Contract, 29th edn OUP Collins, H. 2003, Contract Law in Context 4th edn CUP McKendrick, E. 2009 Contract Law 8th edn Palgrave Peel E and Treitel, G.H. 2011, Treitel on the Law of Contract, 13th edn Sweet and Maxwell Case Law Chappell v Nestle [1960] AC 87 Pinnel's Case [1602] 5 Co. Rep. 117 Re McArdle (1951) Ch 669 Stilk v Myrick [1809] EWHC KB J58 Williams v Roffey Bros and Nicholls Contractors) Ltd (1990) 1 All ER 512

Walt Whitman Biography

Walt Whitman was an American poet born on May 31 1819 to Walter Whitman and Louisa Van Velsor in Long Island. He had a rough childhood due to economic hardships and finished his formal education at eleven years. He found a job after school to supplement his family’s income as an office boy. Later he got a job as an apprentice for a printing firm and began his interest in writing. Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Walt Whitman Biography specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More However, he began to teach after a fire destroyed the printing district in New York in 1836 at seventeen years. He also started his own newspaper. His work raised a lot of controversy when he wrote it but he often considered as the â€Å"father of free verse† (Reynolds 314). The aim of writing was to reach the common person whom he felt had been ignored by the literature of his time. Whitman was interested in politics and used his work s to address political and democracy issues in the society. His major work was his collection of poems called titled Leaves of Grass in 1855. The collection attracted negative criticism from many critics as they called the work obscene due to its sexual themes, which they found offensive. Consequently, he was sacked from his job at Brooklyn Eagle (Jason 87-91). However, one man by the name of Ralph Waldo Emerson gave Whitman’s poetry collection an approval and praised the work to his friends. The approval raised an interest in the book. Emerson gave the book his approval when he wrote Whitman a letter praising the book. Thus, Emerson contributed greatly to Whitman’s career as the letter which written by Emerson was printed in the subsequent edition and helped to mitigate the negative criticism his first edition had attracted and made a positive statement about Whitman’s collection of poems. The environment also influenced Whitman’s work. His milieu was one of mortality as he had encountered death when his infant sister when he was six years old. He also lost member of his family and other relatives. In addition while working as a printer he encountered stories about people that impacted his poetry for instance the poem Song of Myself, in which he shows violent ends. Advertising Looking for essay on american literature? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Whitman encountered wounded and dying soldiers as he served as volunteer nurse and thus had a direct contact with the blood bath as shown in the poem A March in the Ranks Hard-Prest in which he expressed his disdain for the war (Scheick 173). Whitman faced challenges throughout his life such as loss of employment and at times he just got by life through the help of his friends who would send him money from England and America. However, that did not deter him as he sought to help those in need. He was very interested in the lives of the people and the civil war changed him as he started taking care often people wounded in the war. He volunteered as a nurse as army hospitals and used his money and donations from friends to buy supplies for the wounded (Callow 293). He also took care of his mother and brother and thus did not neglect his family. Finally, Whitman passed on in March 26, 1892 from pneumonia. He left a lasting legacy because his works reflected the American society. He highlighted the plight of the oppressed such as the slaves thus his works championed for democracy in the society to give all people a fair chance. Thus, one cannot deny the fact that Whitman is one of the most influential American poets and the interest in his works today is proof. Works Cited Callow, Philip.  From Noon to Starry Night: A Life of Walt Whitman. Chicago: Ivan R. Dee, 1992. Jason, Stacy. Walt Whitman’s Multitudes: Labor Reform and Persona in Whitman’s Journalism and the First  Leaves of Grass,  1 840-1855. New York: Peter Lang Publishing, 2008. Reynolds, David S.  Walt Whitman’s America: A Cultural Biography. New York: Vintage Books, 1995.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Walt Whitman Biography specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Scheick, William J. â€Å"Aspiz Harod. So Long! L Walt Whitman’s poetry of death.† Walt Whitman Quarterly Review, 21. 3 (2004): 173-175. This essay on Walt Whitman Biography was written and submitted by user Jazmin Sutton to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

John Whites drawing and Theodore De Bry engravings

Introduction In 1585, John White led the third Raleigh-financed voyage to Roanoke Island; in a venture planned by Sir Walter Raleigh known as the failed colony of Roanoke. The city of Raleigh located in Central North Carolina, is named after Sir Walter Raleigh, who actually never set his foot there. He however â€Å"encouraged the settlement of North Carolina, and played a great role in popularizing the New World’s potatoes and tobacco in England and Ireland† (Bry 1).Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on John White’s drawing and Theodore De Bry engravings specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More John White documented his trip with watercolor images of the native people he encountered and some of the scenes and material goods of their lives so that when he returned to England he could show what he had seen. A publisher by the name Theodore De Bry later on made engravings of some of White’s pictures to be included in Harriot’s book. This paper will analyze the changes made on White’s work by Bry, underlying reasons and recommendations for the changes. Village Of Pomeiooc Description John white painted a â€Å"bird’s eye view of an Algonkian village, located between the present Lake Landing and Wyesocking Bay, on his 1585 visit to the Carolina coast,† (Hulton and Quinn 1964) however, Theodore De Bry, engraved a plate known as ‘The arrival of the Englishmen in Virginia’ which represents the map of North Carolina oriented to the west. Indeed, according to Hulton and Quinn (1964) the map shows â€Å"part of Pamlico Sound, Roanoke Island, the mouth of Albemarle Sound and the Alligator River, and part of Currituck Sound with the Carolina Outer Banks, divided into six islands.† Variations between Theodore De Bry Engraving and Drawing by John White The following are the important variations between Theodore de Bry engraving and drawing by john white. Primarily, work of Bry has some significant changes to what White had made, with the rear entrance to the palisade being omitted, enlarged poles and a hexagonal ground plan for the house that had cupola. In addition, although he did not quite make significant variations on occupation capacity, Bry found it proper to draw a trees background as well as drawing cornfield, and sunflower and a small pond to the left and right of the picture respectively. Moreover, the drawing of the Indians differ as Bry decided to present two of them drawing water â€Å"using hemispherical vessels with loop handles,† while the engravement also includes a ridge in the foreground with plants growing on it (Hulton and Quinn 1964) The Reasons De Bry Might Have Had for Making those Changes De Bry wanted to relate his engraving more closely to the lost variant from which White made his drawing. At the publishing time, De Bry could have made some changes by comparing B. Sloane copy plate 81 with that of John White. Before publication, De Bry could have read the history of Algonkian village, which may have influenced his choice of variations.Advertising Looking for essay on history? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More According to the descriptions given by most of the people who wrote about Carolina Algonkians, the poles drawn by White were approximately correct but they were too widely spaced. According to a reference house at Roanoak with five rooms, white shows nothing comparable (Deak and Birmingham Public Library 1992). Indian Woman and Young Girl Description John White drew a picture of a woman standing to the front facing half right, and on her left there is a child facing half left. She is in an apron skirt of fringed skin, long hair caught at the nape of her neck, a headband, a bead necklace on her neck and on her waist where her right hand is thrust, some painted or tattooed decorations on her forehead, chi ck, chin, and upper arms, and a large bottle-guard shaped vessel on her left hand. Her height just at the woman’s waist, the girl dons a necklace, â€Å"a tongue like pendant on her right hand, a thong and a doll on her left hand† (Hulton and Quinn 1964). Variations between Theodore De Bry Engraving and Drawing by John White In De Bry engraving, certain variations made include presenting the woman with her right foot just in front of her left foot while the girl is running towards the left holding a doll on her left hand. The difference with White’s drawing is that the girl is stationary at the left side of the woman – not running (Hulton and Quinn 1964). Moreover, Bry made other changes by removing the headband from the woman and changing the location of tattoo marks from the chin to the calves in addition to adding an extra string to the girl’s necklace and removing a pendant from the same. The Reasons De Bry Might Have Had for Making those Chang es During his time of publishing, Theodore De Bry had at his exposure the narrative by Thomas Harriot and the drawing by John White thus he made some changes from the narrative through comparison. He might have made some changes from the history of the place from other sources or from its museums and archives. Implication of the Modifications The modifications made by De Bry in his engravings gives the reader a broader view of the history of Algonkian village in North Carolina. One tends to assume that De Bry had done enough research before he published Harriot’s book meaning that he was trying to perfect White’s drawings.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on John White’s drawing and Theodore De Bry engravings specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Works Cited Bry, Theodore D. John White’s attempt to rescue the Roanoke colonists. N.d. 16 October 2010. http://nationalhumanitiescenter.org/pds/amer begin/exploration/text6/white.pdf Deak, Gloria-Gilda and Birmingham Public Library. Discovering America’s Southeast: a sixteenth century view based on the mannerist engravings of Theodore de Bry. Birmingham, Birmingham Public Library Press. 1992 Hulton, Paul and Quinn, David B. American Drawings of John White.1964.16 October 2010. http://www.virtualjamestown.org/images/white_debry_html/white.html#s34 This essay on John White’s drawing and Theodore De Bry engravings was written and submitted by user Lee Ellison to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

Free Essays on Safety At Play

in order to express opinions or doubts in situations. Thus developing language and communication skills. Taking risks encourages a child to explore limits, experience new situations and develop their capacities, from a young age. Gaining new experiences extends problem solving, planning and reflection skills, which are essential to life. Children would never learn activities such as walking or climbing stairs unless they were motivated to respond to risk. Risk taking is often found in play situations where a child will learn through the play activities they partic... Free Essays on Safety At Play Free Essays on Safety At Play Childhood is the period of life that enables children to become competent and develop into confident adults. The role of an adult will influence the child significantly and during childhood, a child relies on the adult to care, protect and support whilst they learn and gain knowledge of the world. Part of the role and adult plays in a young child’s life is that of looking out for risks that a child may not anticipate. This is a natural instinct but can be taken to extremes by restricting a child from certain things. Restricting activities or disallowing a child from doing something because of fears about what might happen, blocks the development of a child intellectually which in turn causes social, emotional and physical deteriation. An adult needs to understand that it is impossible to shield a child from all risk whether it is part of their development, physically, emotionally or intellectually. All children need and want to take risks. A child will learn through risk and the ‘’learning has to be grounded in their own personal, social and emotional development.’’ (Jennie Lindon 2003). The lessons they need to learn focuses on confidence and ability. They need to feel confident enough to deal with mistakes and to take risks with the confidence that it is all right not to know something. Confidence is also needed to learn new words in order to express opinions or doubts in situations. Thus developing language and communication skills. Taking risks encourages a child to explore limits, experience new situations and develop their capacities, from a young age. Gaining new experiences extends problem solving, planning and reflection skills, which are essential to life. Children would never learn activities such as walking or climbing stairs unless they were motivated to respond to risk. Risk taking is often found in play situations where a child will learn through the play activities they partic...

Three Ways That Create Value for a Firm Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Three Ways That Create Value for a Firm - Essay Example It is not merely identifying a product but as Durkin (1997) states innovative firms make investments in knowledge to develop new products which give them a monopoly in the international market. The second contention is on the resource-based theory (RBT) of the firm where rare and valuable resources give it a sustainable competitive advantage (Peteraf & Wernerfelt cited by Bowman & Ambrosini, 2000) while the third approach states that firms should be able to seize opportunities faster than other firms and gain value. The first approach pertains to product and industry innovation while the third concentrates on strategy innovation. The knowledge development in the first approach again would imply investments in resources – technical or human. Hence, all three approaches are not independent of each other although each has its own distinctive features. The positional approach is also based on Porter’s theory of five competitive forces which determine the firm’s profitability and attractiveness (Porter, 1985). The journal does not specify whether the industry and value of such firms relate to competitiveness in their own nation or the nation where products have been marketed. Pharmaceutical industries operate globally and hence this aspect is not clear whereas Porter insists that competitiveness and productivity pertain to national productivity, which should enhance the value of the firm in the nation in which it operates (Davies & Ellis, 2000). Resources can be defined as anything that gives advantage or disadvantage to the firm. (Mills et al, 2003). The support theory of Johnson et al (2005) divides the resources as threshold resources and unique resources, where threshold resource satisfies customer’s minimum requirements and unique resources contribute to competitive advantage and make it difficult for the competitor to copy the value. A successful business needs to secure the resources according to Scott et al (2005) which the journal specifies

Assign_1 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Assign_1 - Essay Example This development was followed by commercial motives that were aligned to take the internet to a commercial scale. Cerf played an instrumental role in making the internet popular and helped define it in its current state. TCP/IP forms a part of the internet protocol suite that is the widely used communication protocol over the internet. The complete protocol tends to provide end to end connectivity between devices communicating through the internet. The protocol also specifies how data is formatted, transmitted, received, addressed and routed between the sender and the destination. The internet protocol version four (IPv4) was the first most widely deployed internet protocol. Even now, the most widely deployed internet protocol is the IPv4. The IPv4 uses the 32 bit (4 byte) address scheme that limits the total address space to around 4.3 billion users (2^32). This limit was exceeded in February 2011 but this exhaustion had been envisioned for some time already. Development on the IPv6 protocol had been underway in the nineties. The IPv6 protocol was deployed in 2006 on a commercial basis and tends to use 128 bit addresses to produce 3.4 x 1038 addresses for users and devices. Given the expansion in i nternet services and internet dependent devices it was necessary to expand the total number of addresses to accommodate an ever-increasing user base. In the video Cerf goes ahead to say that he would like to see an incorporation of authenticity layers to augment the validity of online users. Currently it is common for internet users to use the internet without much need for authentication. Using this advantage users can surf the internet anonymously and there have been cases of abuse over the internet. Cerf also goes ahead to say that anonymous surfing may actually be necessary in order to protect the identities of people using the internet in states where censorship laws are repressive. This issue is open to debate but Cerf’s point of view is clear that he

Brand Management Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 4500 words

Brand Management - Essay Example rand of its retail business, and it is the largest division in the Cooperative Group and it is one of the largest food retail chains in the country of United Kingdom. The strategy adopted by the group is to mainly serving the local communities with small stores, in line with the objectives of cooperative movement, rather than competing with the bigger supermarkets. Members of The Co-operative Group get rebate on the value of purchases made from the cooperative retail stores. The brand concept of the group, for example in the case of Co-op 99Â  brand tea, portends success of a comprehensive strategy that may be adopted for its foods business, to leverage its strengths goodwill in the market. The products with Cooperative brands already appearing with its own labels are available throughout the country in their own stores and other retail cooperative societies. A strategy for consolidation of the brand image and brand value at this stage would enhance the brand identity, recognition, image and positioning relative to the competing products. Brand image denotes the respectability or the status of the products or services as perceived by the consumers. Brand represents character, quality or attributes in respect of the products or services which is very important for the manufacturers or service providers to position the product or services in the market place or differentiate them from the others. Every entrepreneur tries to introduce unique features to strike a chord with the customers with varied expectations, requirements, aspirations and psychological needs. In creation of a brand, building unique features into the products or services plays a basic and important role. Establishing the brand in the market place involves creating awareness about the products in the minds of the consumers. Creation, establishment and maintenance of the brand could be called as brand management. There are so many factors involved in a brand to be successful in the long

Characteristics Of Globalisation Economics Essay

Characteristics Of Globalisation Economics Essay Since the early 1960s a large number of theories on foreign direct investment(FDI) have emerged. This proliferation was to a large extent, due to Hymer (1976),and the subsequent recognition that FDI is a manifestation of market imperfection and firm specific advantages. This is the implicit and explicit assumption in most modern theories. The multiplicity of factors involved in production,combined with barriers to the free movement of goods and services, together with the differences in production environment, are all reasons for also been an increasing number of studies regarding other modes of foreign investment. These new forms of FI activities such as join venture , licensing, franchising, etc seem to have taken on an increasingly important role in recent years everywhere, including developing countries (Oman,1984). Foreign direct investment (FDI ) is the vehicle by which firms achieve their strategic objectives. Accompany must posses some asset such as product and process technology or management and marketing skills that can be used beneficially in the foreign affiliate in order to invest in production in foreign markets. According to Kindleberger(1969) , For direct investment to thrive there must be some imperfection in markets for goods or factors, including among the latter technology. Or some interference in competition by government or by firms, which separates markets. The industrialized nations have remained the major contributor as well as the major recipient of FDI though FDI flows to the developing world have more than doubled between 1990 and 1999 . According to Chakrabarti (2002) in 1999 , nearly 58percent of 30 global FDI flows went to the industrial countries ,37 per cent to developing countries , and just 5 per cent to the transition economies of eastern Europe. FDI embodies two typical assets : first ,capital and second ,technology or a number of intangible advantages. So, FDI is more likely to be important in industries with significant firm-specific ,intangible ,knowledge-based assets. Foreign direct investment contributes most to the development process whn affiliate is wholly owned and fully integrated into the global operations of the parent company. Once the parent investors commit themselves to incorporate the output from host country into a larger strategy to meet global or regional competition-there is evidence of a dynamic integration effect, which provides newer technology , more rapid technological upgrading ,and closer positioning along the frontier of best management practises and highest industry standards , than any other methods for the host economy to acquire such benefits. There is evidence of more intensive coaching for supplier in quality control, managerial efficiency , and marketing than any other means for firms in the local econom y to gain these skills (Nunuez,1990). FDI will improve competitiveness and, thus, create employment and increase the welfare of the host nation (Dunning, 1994). This is a result of inward investment increasing the number of entrants in the indigenous industry which forces all competitor firms in the industry to become more competitive by reducing costs and improving efficiency and quality. Much FDI activity is achieved by way of a joint venture between a foreign company and an indigenous company and this may bring advantages such as risk diversification, capital requirement reductions and lower start-up costs (Perlmutter and Heenan, 1986). Indirect impact will manifest itself in the creation of spillovers and linkages typically in suppliers and customers whereas the dynamic impact will affect the competitive environment. Inward investment is likely to stimulate the production of global competitors in the recipient country (UN,1995). Market size and growth, barriers to trade, wages, production, transportation and other costs, political stability, psychic distance and host governments trade and taxation regulations, performance requirements, cultural distance, GDP per capita and infrastructure are factors affecting FDI location (Dunning, 1993). While economic growth, and technology transfer to the host country are important consequences of FDI, development of technological infrastructure and human capital are critical prerequisites, and so antecedents for FDI (Noorbakhsh and Paloni, 2001). Moreover, while psychic distance has been pertinent so far in FDI decisions (UNCTAD, 1997; UN, 1998), its importance might gradually reduce with increasing globalization and development of new/digital economy. According to Sethi et al. (2002 p. 701), institutional and strategic factors into theory . . . need to be considered in tandem to explain the change in trend of FDI flows. The inflow of FDI includes a raise in the production base, the introduction of new skills and technologies and the creation of employment. Foreign investors increase productivity in host countries and FDI is often a catalyst for domestic investment and technological progress. Increased competition associated with the entry of an MNE upgrades the competence and product quality in national companies, and opens up possibilities for export (Ahn and Hemmings, 2000).

Racism & Freedom Writers

When I was reading the section of Racism in Multicultural Class, the facilitator’s way of handling the subject â€Å"Racism† reminds me ‘’Freedom Writers† the movie, which is based on a book of Erin Gruwell -a new teacher at Woodrow Wilson High School in Long Beach. She chose the school because of its integration program, but she did not expect a class consist of students who have racist problem. Students splitted into different racial groups, who are ready for fighting, hate each other, but also they hate Erin more than anybody else.On the other hand, senior teachers of the school just ignored the students and they did not make an effort to pave for solving racist problems. Somehow teachers believed that students come to school because of their parents’ insistency and they are not eager to study. Actually, teachers did not want to budge from their privileged positions. When Erin attempted to take a step for the good of students, she is told to do just her job –train them discipline and to obey the rules.Instead being a commanding teacher, Erin wanted to provide a safe space for students to express their feeling, so she asked them to write their own diaries as an assignment, which is not graded. Despite all the resistance, students started to develop trust to her and wrote everything about what it feels to be ‘other’. After they share their narratives and started to communicate with each other.They develop more sensitiveness and interest to other ethnicities by engaging class activities such as visiting the Museum Of Tolerance, and reading the stories from history The Diary of Anne Frank. Erin was happy to see the transformation of them. Before, the students did not have any motivation to success and refuse to interact with other groups because of they do not have hope, but after they develop awareness about tolerance and importance of each life. Erin gave these children what they are not offered befor e. Respect is the key of the racism problems.

Pay Equity In Labor Force Movement Essay

Debates about women’s rights at work and the gendered dimensions of employment inequality were notable and contested features of Canadian political discourse throughout the second half of the twentieth century. Concern about these issues took root during the 1940s, when women experienced dramatic shifts in their employment opportunities as a result of being drawn into and later jettisoned from the reserve army of wartime labor. Pressure to improve women’s employment conditions, particularly in the burgeoning public sector, recurred in the mid-1950s. However, it was in the 1960s, once the second wave of feminism took root in Canada, that women began to develop a sustained critique of the employment inequalities they experienced and pressure their governments to address the problem through policy innovation and change. (Westhues, 45-58) From the outset of second-wave feminism, women advanced analyses of employment inequality that took account of their labor in both the public and domestic spheres. As Brockman noted, activists â€Å"drew attention, as had never been done before, to the fundamental incompatibility between reproductive labor and child care, on the one hand, and paid work on the other, as well as to the profound consequences of this incompatibility. † (Brockman, 78-93) While liberal, radical, and socialist feminists approached this issue from different ideological vantage points, they shared a common belief that the causes of gender inequality in employment were not rooted solely in the workplace. Only, they claimed, if questions about women’s employment in the public sphere were addressed in tandem with questions about their labor in the domestic sphere would the gendered dimensions of employment inequality be fully understood. In particular, feminists thought that women’s maternal work had to be recognized in discussions about promoting gender equality in the workplace. As Westhues, a well-known socialist feminist, once argued, â€Å"As long as women have the primary responsibility for maintenance of the home and for child care, we will be less than able to pursue job opportunities and our domestic commitments will be used to justify discriminatory employment practices. † (Westhues, 45-58) Growing awareness of the need to link questions about production and reproduction in analyses of women’s economic position was by no means unique to Canadian feminism. It was, for example, well established in the early writing of second-wave feminists in Britain and the United States. What did, however, distinguish Canadian feminists from their counterparts in these other liberal democracies was an ability to work together, despite ideological differences, in order to advance this double-edged critique of gender inequality in employment. Right from the start of the contemporary women’s movement, Canadian feminists engaged with the state, demanding policies that recognized the link between women’s employment opportunities and the provision of child care. Canadian feminists lobbied both federal and provincial governments about the need to improve women’s employment opportunities and expand the provision of child care. It was in the federal arena, however, that women (outside Quebec) focused their demands for the development of policies that acknowledged the link between these two issues. In some respects, this federal focus was surprising. After all, only one-tenth of the Canadian labor force is regulated by the federal government, and even at the start of second-wave feminism both federal and provincial governments had been involved in employment opportunity and child care initiatives. Moreover, even though the federal government has the constitutional capacity to use its spending power to underwrite the provision of state-subsidized child care, it is the provinces that retain constitutional control over the delivery of this service. The federal focus of women’s campaigns was encouraged by the fact that the renaissance of Canadian feminism occurred within the context of a broader social project to achieve universal welfare guarantees, assured by the Canadian state. It was reinforced by the government of Canada’s decision to establish the 1967 Royal Commission on the Status of Women (RCSW) to inquire how best the federal government could ensure that women enjoyed â€Å"equal opportunities with men in all aspects of Canadian society. † It has since been sustained by the work of activists in national organizations, in particular the National Action Committee on the Status of Women (NAC), founded in 1972, and the Canadian Day Care Advocacy Association (CDCAA), established in 1982 and renamed the Child Care Advocacy Association of Canada (CCAAC) in 1992. However, despite a long history of feminist engagement with the federal state, women’s repeated campaigns for the development of policies to address the double-edged nature of gender inequality in employment, and the clear recognition of these demands in reports of royal commissions and task forces, the federal policy response has been uneven. Policies to eradicate sex discrimination at work and promote women’s employment opportunities have been developed and implemented in the federal policy sphere. By contrast, the federal government has not developed policies to promote a publicly funded system of child care in order to enhance women’s employment opportunities, save as emergency measures during the Second World War or as an element of broader initiatives to get â€Å"welfare mothers† out to work. Instead it has treated child care as a fiscal issue for which parents can receive subsidies through federal taxation. This paper examines why a double-edged interpretation of women’s employment inequality, which recognizes the public and domestic dimensions of women’s work, has not been fully absorbed into federal policies to promote gender equality in the sphere of employment. The analysis follows the development of debates about women’s rights at work from the period of reconstruction after the Second World War, when questions about eradicating employment discrimination against worker-citizens first emerged in Canadian political debate, through to the close of the twentieth century. It examines federal policy developments under Liberal and Conservative governments, showing that even though the reports of federal royal commissions and task forces encoded feminist demands for a double-edged attack on employment inequality, questions about promoting women’s employment equality and child care were continually driven apart in the federal policy process. Women’s Paid and Caring Work  While this is by no means the first time that scholars have considered the relationship between Canadian women’s work inside and outside the home, it is noticeable how the link between these two aspects of women’s labor was explored by historians and sociologists before being addressed by analysts of public policy. In the late 1970s, members of the Women’s History Collective at the Ontario Institute for Studies in Education and the Clio Collective in Montreal pioneered research in Canada on how women’s labor had shifted from the unpaid domestic sphere into the world of paid employment. In the process, they unearthed textual and oral histories that demonstrated how, despite this transition, women still faced the double bind of a double-day in which they went out to work for pay and home to work for love. Their findings were reinforced in late 1970s and 1980s by sociological analyses of women’s work arguing that because women so often entered employment while maintaining primary responsibility for the care of their children, they frequently found themselves concentrated in low-paid, low-status employment. Despite the fact that historians, sociologists, and feminist activists drew attention to the â€Å"double ghetto† of women’s working lives, discussions about policies to promote women’s employment opportunities and improve the provision of child care evolved as distinct scholarly debates. The literature on policies to promote Canadian women’s employment opportunities emerged within the context of broader discussions and debates about the development of policies to root out discrimination in the workplace. By contrast, the literature on Canadian child care policy evolved around questions about the development, cost, and politics of implementing public policies to promote the welfare, education, care, and development of young children. In recent years, however, policy analysts have paid much greater attention to the link between women’s paid and caring work. Jacobs, 120-128) Nonetheless, no one has yet considered why Canadian government policies to promote women’s employment opportunities and improve the provision of child care have been developed at such different rates and, despite repeated calls to the contrary, not linked in the design of public policies to promote gender equality in federally regulated employment. This pattern of inquiry is understandable, given the discrete historical development of policies concerned with child care and those concerned with women’s employment. However, it unduly limits our understanding of the gendered dimensions of employment inequality in Canada and fails to capture the empirical reality of many women’s working lives. Double-Edged Nature of Women’s Employment Inequality Why did women’s double-edged demand for equal employment opportunities and child care emerge in Canada in the 1960s and 1970s? After all, from the mid-1950s Canada experienced one of the fastest rates of labor force feminization in the Western industrialized world. The decline of manufacturing industries and the concomitant growth of the tertiary sector in the 1950s and 1960s meant that while industries that had traditionally attracted men closed down, those demanding support skills that had long characterized women’s traditional domestic roles expanded. Moreover, in countries like Canada, where welfare states were being established, the growth in women’s employment intensified most quickly. The much trumpeted rise in female labor force participation rates did not, however, mean that women engaged in paid employment on the same terms as men. The occupational segregation of Canadian men and women persisted in both horizontal and vertical forms. In fact, this process intensified with the increased participation of women in the paid labor force. As a result, the vast majority of women found themselves working in poorly paid occupations, situated in the lower echelons of private companies and public sector organizations. Moreover, as Jacobs have noted, although the creation of welfare states meant that â€Å"women as a group had more employment opportunities open up for them than men† in the mid-twentieth century, the growth in women’s employment was in the part-time sector of the labor force, which was increasingly dominated by women in all OECD (Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development) countries. Jacobs, 120-128) This simply intensified the inequalities of employment opportunity that women experienced because part-time work is concentrated in the least-skilled, lowest-paid, and most poorly organized sections of the labor force, where benefits are usually more limited than in the full-time sector. The rapid growth in women’s participation in part-time rather than fulltime employment reflects two other factors about the feminization of the Canadian labor force. On the one hand, it relates to the type of work that the service sector has generated and to the increasing flexibility demanded of its employees. On the other hand, it reflects the fact that the greatest increase in female labor force participation rates since the 1960s has been among women with young children. In the early 1960s, most female employees in Canada would leave the workforce when their first child was born and return only when their youngest child had entered school. By the mid-1980s most women with young children went out to work. Indeed, as Pendakur have noted, â€Å"By 1991 all traces of the reproduction function had disappeared with female labor force participation rates peaking in the major family-rearing age categories†. The double burden that women experience from juggling their employment while continuing to care for their children has been reinforced by the limited provision of subsidized child care spaces in Canada. In the late 1960s, when women began to pressure the federal government to address the minimal provision of child care for working women, federal subsidies for child care were limited to support for welfare mothers under the 1966 Canada Assistance Plan. This pattern changed very little in the course of the twentieth century, although federal subsidies to support child care for low-income families became increasingly tied to efforts to get mothers receiving welfare out to work. Although recent federal publications on the status of day care in Canada boast â€Å"a twenty-five-fold increase† in child care spaces since the government first gathered these data in 1971, in fact the proportion of children of working mothers who have access to regulated child care remains very low. As a result, most working parents remain highly dependent on informal, unregulated child care. Indeed, as Brockman noted, in the mid-1990s â€Å"children in informal child care arrangements accounted for eighty per cent of all child care used by parents in Canada. † (Brockman, 78-93) The federal state in Canada has addressed questions about promoting equal employment opportunities for men and women in the public sphere with relative ease but has failed to recognize that this project cannot be achieved without addressing the questions of child care that affect so many women’s working lives. While the reasons for this are complex, some insights from feminist theory may help us to begin this exploration. In recent years, a number of feminist theorists have discussed how the concept of worker-citizenship that took root as welfare states were developed in countries such as Canada did not take account of the different contexts in which women and men often assumed employment. (Pendakur, 111-120) As a result, when questions about promoting equal employment opportunities for men and women began to emerge in the 1950s and ’60s, they were framed in terms of women achieving the same opportunities as men. Indeed, Canadian have tried to develop a more nuanced concept of worker citizenship that not only respects the objective of equality of opportunity but also takes workers’ particular circumstances into account and, in the case of women, enables them to integrate their paid and caring work better. In the process, women have argued that a state that upholds the principle of gender equality must develop policies that take account of the interconnectedness of the public and domestic spheres and recognize the different contexts in which men and women often assume employment. Conclusion Nonetheless, although Canadian feminists have a long history of active engagement with the state, developed through a â€Å"visible and articulate women’s movement† that has successfully placed issues on the political agenda, the result, more often than not, has been that their demands have been contained within a limited set of reforms. As a result, those aspects of gender discrimination in the workplace that concern practices within the public sphere have been acknowledged through the introduction of anti-discrimination and employment equity policies. By contrast, women have had more difficulty getting their proposals for policies that transcend the public/ private divide, by linking questions of equal employment opportunity with those of child care, acknowledged in the federal policy arena. Despite their efforts to forge these links through two major royal commissions and other government inquiries, problems of gender inequality in employment are still primarily defined as issues located within the public sphere of employment. Without doubt, over the past thirty years there have been clear improvements in the position of women in the federally regulated section of the Canadian labor force. Nonetheless, women continue to cluster in the lower echelons of companies and organizations and remain under-represented in more senior positions. While this persistent pattern of inequality has many causes, paper shows how it reflects a federal policy process that concentrates on ensuring the comparable treatment of male and female employees once they have entered the labor market, yet, for complex reasons, repeatedly stalls on developing a more expansive approach to child care. As a result, federal policies to promote gender equality in the sphere of employment neglect the inequalities of access and participation that many women experience as they continue or resume employment once they have dependent children.

Comparing the Peace Brought on by Asoka and Augustus essays

Comparing the Peace Brought on by Asoka and Augustus essays Both Asoka in India and Augusta in Rome brought a period of peace through their rule as emperors. These periods of peace were both implicated after military victory. Asoka, conquered new lands for ancient India, but unlike Augustus saw the horror and destruction his war brought. After seeing what his actions had caused, Asoka converted to Buddhism and instituted a series of religious edicts which were to ensure the peace and prosperity of his nation. Augustus, on the other hand, believed that peace was a natural part of military victory. Unlike Asoka, who saw his military conquests as a corruption of peace, Augustus believed that peace could only be achieved and sustained through military might. Asoka was the son of the famous Bindusara and ruled over India from 269 to 232 B.C.E. The beginning of his reign followed suit with his predecessors. He set out to conquer neighboring kingdoms at the expense of the peace and prosperity of his own people. After ruling violently over India and seeing the destruction his conquests caused, Asoka converted to Buddhism. The conquest of Kalinga changed Asokas bloodthirsty ways. There, he personally witnessed how his warfare was making the common people utterly miserable. Part of his conversion was to ensure peace within his Kingdom in remembrance of the foul deeds he had done which caused so much pain and suffering (Noss 189). He instituted a series of religious edicts, called the Rock and Pillar Edicts, which were Buddhist teachings that he now used as mandates for the rule of the people, To this end I have issued proclamations on Dharma, and I have instituted various kinds of moral and religious instruction, (Rock and Pillar Edic ts 153). Asoka believed that his people should be united, and should practice piety and common law; let them store up merit toward rebirth in a paradise hereafter, (Noss 190). Asoka used his government to implement his new found rel...

Non-Hodgkins Lymphoma Essay Example

Non Non-Hodgkins Lymphoma Essay Non-Hodgkins Lymphoma Essay Non-Hodgkins Lymphoma Non-Hodgkins Lymphoma is a type of cancer that begins within immune system cells called lymphocytes. Similar to other cancers, lymphoma occurs when lymphocytes are uncontrollably growing and multiplying. These lymphocytes are white blood cells that move throughout the body with the help of a fluid called lymph. There they are transported by a network of different vessels that make up the lymphatic system, which is a part of the immune system. The main Job of the lymphatic system is to fght off infections or anything else that threatens the body. The lymphatic system consists of different lymph nodes located hroughout the body to help monitor the lymph that flows through them. These lymph nodes can be very helpful in predicting signs of possible cancer. The nodes will begin to tenderize and swell when a large amount of microbial organisms collect insides of them, indicating infection. There are two main types of lymphocytes, B- cells, and T-cells. Both are designed to recognize and destroy infections, however, B- cells travel through the body with the infection, while T-cells kill the infection directly. When these cells begin to multiply too quickly, they begin to build up in the lymph odes, forming a giant mass of cells called a tumor. Once this tumor forms, it begins to grow, invading the space of nearby organs and tissues, cutting off their oxygen supply. If these abnormal lymphocytes travel between lymph nodes, or to other organs, the cancer can spread and metastasize to other regions of the body, making it much more difficult to control and get rid of. Non-Hodgkins is classified and derived from either abnormal B or T-cells and has thirty different subtypes (Clarke 139). In the United States each year, about fifty-four thousand people are diagnosed ith Non-Hodgkins Lymphoma, making it the most common type of blood cancer in the U. S (Clarke 138). The symptoms of this disease may be difficult to discover, since often times they may appear suddenly and be painless. These symptoms can include swollen lymph nodes in the neck, armpit, or groin. This swelling may be painless and go unnoticed. There may also be discomfort or a fullness in the abdomen, feeling very tired or weak, shortness of breath, as well as fever and weight loss. It is important to get these symptoms checked out and monitored by a doctor to result in etter treatment if needed. There are certain risk factors that may increase the risk of Non-Hodgkins lymphoma, such as immune system deficiencies, chemicals, and older age. Certain medications that suppress immune system efficiency, as well as organ transplants, greatly increase the risk of new disease due to immunosuppressive therapy reducing the bodys ability to fght off new diseases (Clarke 142). There are also viruses and bacteria that have been linked to the increased risk of Non-Hodgkins lymphoma. Viruses that have been linked include HIV and Epstein-Barr virus, more commonly nown as herpes. Helicobacter Pylori, an ulcer-causing bacteria found in the stomach that has also been known to increase the risk of getting lymphoma. Although, more research needs to be conducted to connect pesticides with the risk of Non-Hodgkins, certaln Insect ana weed factor that is to be considered, although people at any age can get cancer, Non- Hodgkins is most common in people sixty or older. To diagnose lymphoma, a full physical must be conducted, as well as looking into family history. A oncologist will then be called in to review the findings and decide where to go next. When screening to find how far cancer has spread, several techniques can be used. These include x-rays, computerized tomography scans, magnetic resonance imaging, as well as lymphangiograms. Bone marrow examinations are also common to test if infected with abnormal B or T-cells. The best way to test for cancer is by conducting a biopsy and testing a small sample of the tumor to determine whether cancer exists or not. Conducting a biopsy or fluid examination is the best way to get an in-depth look at possible cancer cells. Immunohistochemistry is a popular test used by pathologists y treating the sample with antibodies that attach only to specific molecules on the cell. Color changes among the antibodies can occur and be seen under a microscope allowing pathologists to detect different diseases present. Flow cytometry is a very similar process to immunohistochemistry, but allows a much more in-depth look at the cells by passing them through a laser. This laser techniques provides the ability to separate and count groups of cells. Flow cytometry can also detect whether the lymph nodes are swollen due to lymphoma, or some other type of cancer, or a non- cancerous disease. This allows doctors to better determine the type of lymphoma to be dealt with as well as the best way to treat it. Another way to determine the type of lymphoma is through cytogenetics. This technique inhibits doctors to take a look at the chromosomes in the lymphoma cells to look for translocations, which is common in some types of lymphoma. Other ways to identify the type of lymphoma is if the cells have too many, too few, or other chromosomal abnormalities. Once diagnosed, there are four stages in distinguishing the extent of the disease, starting with the least serious being stage one. Stage one, or early in the diagnosis of ymphoma is when the disease is contained to single lymph node region or in a single organ. Stage two is classified when two or more lymph node regions are infected on the same side of the diaphragm, or when a lymph node and an organ are infected. Stage three is advanced lymphoma when two or more lymph nodes, or a lymph node and an organ infected on different sides of the body. Stage four, or the widespread level of lymphoma is when the cancer has spread to the spleen, bone marrow, bone, or central nervous system. There are different treatments based on the type, and stage of the cancer, as well s other factors such as age, and health status. The most common and effective treatment for Non-Hodgkins lymphoma is chemotherapy, radiation, and biological therapy. Chemotherapy uses chemicals that interfere with the cellular division process, triggering a suicide effect amongst the cancer cells. These chemicals attack all of the cells, including the healthy ones, although normal cells are able to recover from the chemical-induced damage, whereas the cancer cells cannot. Chemotherapy is usually used when the cancer has metastasized, since the medicines travels hroughout the entire body, rather than focusing on one place. This treatment is done in cycles, so the body has a resting period in between to heal before the next cycle . I nere are some sloe erects tnat come along wltn It still, tnese Include tnlngs such as hair loss, fatigue, nausea and vomiting. Although not as effective, there are also medications that can be used to boost the immune systems reaction to these infected a-cells. Rituximab is a biological medication that is a type of monoclonal antibody that attaches to B cells in order to make them more visible to the immune system to attack. This medication lowers the number of B cells, including the non- infected, healthy ones, however, the body will produce more cells, to replace these. Once the cancerous cells are dead, they are much less likely to reoccur. Radiation treatment works to destroy cancer cells by focusing high-energy rays onto the cells. This damages the molecular structure of the cells and causes them to commit suicide. These high-energy rays are usually emitted from metals, such as radium or strong x-rays that are created by a machine. Radiation can either be used on its own or in correlation with other cancer treatments. Side effects may include skin changes often resembling a sunburn or tan, vomiting, fatigue, nausea, and loss of appetite. The most effective treatment to increase a lymphoma patients chance for survival is the combination of the chemical R848 with radiation therapy. With the growing knowledge of genetics, doctors are able to better diagnose Non- hodgkin lymphoma through the methods mentioned previously, allowing a much better prognosis for those infected. There are also new treatments being looked into to help better treat and prevent this cancer from taking peoples lives. Vaccines are ow being introduced as a way to help treat certain cases of lymphoma. It has been known for quite some time that peoples immune systems may help play a major role in fghting cancer, in some cases, some have been cured after their immune system rejects the cancer. With this knowledge, doctors are trying to encourage this immune reaction with a vaccine. This vaccine is used to treat, rather than prevent the disease, and is only available in clinical trials as of now. The goal of this is to create an immune reaction in patients dealing with lymphoma in either the early stages, or clients whose disease is in remission. Along with having very little side effects, when used in clinical trials treating late-stage patients whom chemotherapy was successful, the vaccine increased the time the lymphoma came back by at least a year. Increasing ones knowledge of signs and symptoms correlated with Non-Hodgkins can create a better prognosis of successfully killing the disease. The research of new vaccines that can help the immune system naturally kill the cells on its own can greatly decrease the need for other treatments such as chemotherapy and radiation, along with the horrible side effects that come along with them.

Critically evaluate the tests for certainty of objects in the law of Essay

Critically evaluate the tests for certainty of objects in the law of trusts and assess whether developments in the last half century have had a positive or negative impact on the law - Essay Example The assessment of certainty of objects is complex because the test varies between mere powers, fixed trusts and discretionary trusts. The reason for identifying the objects of trust is to ensure that there is a person who can enforce trust against the trustee. Additionally, there must be someone who can bring an action in court in case the responsibilities of the trustee are not achieved. The trust must also have the ability of being executed in that when there is no human persons to benefit from the trust then the concept of trust becomes pointless2. Therefore, when a beneficiary is explicitly named in the trust deed there is no confusion when it comes to the certainty of objects. In cases where a person is not explicitly named in the trust deed, but the trust document provides a description of an individual that should profit from the trust property. Additionally, in case the description is clear and precise that it is a particular person then this prerequisite is satisfied. In a certainty of objects where the trust is made for a set of people for example, ‘my children’ this clause will succeed where it has been established that there is adequate certainty to identify each member of the group/class of people3. When a group of people are not clearly described, defined, or stated in vague terms their meaning can be interpreted using the conceptual uncertainty. Two tests that have been created to establish whether all persons within the group can be clearly recognized. They include the class ascertainability test, which comes into play where trustees make a complete list of each individual that comes within the class of people to benefit from trust. Although the courts do not need to know the entire class in order to decide whether the trustees are selecting within the group, in case the trustees do not do so then it must be said that the trustees are not exercising their duties in case they have

Hitler's Germany Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Hitler's Germany - Essay Example This essay will assess whether Hitler’s ability to appeal to the German people was the source of his power or whether his personality traits and psychological abnormalities were more significant. Hitler’s ability to appeal to the German people lay in his skills at oratory. With his words, Hitler was able to mould public opinion in his favour. As a member of the lower class strata, Hitler had the added advantage of winning over the masses who felt themselves wronged by the German authorities. He claimed himself to be one of them which created an aura of trust and respect for the man who had risen from amongst the lower class. His style appealed greatly to the working class of Germany who felt understood by this leader. Hitler’s speeches were outspoken which helped create an image of courage and bravado to his personality. The Germans needed someone to blame for their disastrous defeat and this was provided to them by Hitler. Hitler’s singular appeal through his skills as an orator also lay in the message he conveyed. He was able to define a scapegoat upon which the German people could vent their wrath for the shame they felt at their defeat in the First World War and the terms of the Versailles Treaty – namely, the Jews. Waite contends that the Fuhrer was himself a man who suffered from deep rooted feelings of inferiority and guilt; he felt that Hitler could have been suffering from a fear that his own blood was impure and that his sexuality was warped. This led him to try and over compensate by directing those feelings outwards on to other elements of society – the Jews and Communists (Mitchell, 1973:41). His views were derived from H.S. Chamberlian whose interpretation of history stated that of the three major strains that comprised mankind, two of them had been Aryan, namely the Greeks and the Aryans who created culture, while the third strain, i.e., the Semetic one, was culture destroying.

People & Organisations Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

People & Organisations - Essay Example Maslows Hierarchy of Needs can be viewed in a pyramid form. From bottom to top the needs are as follows: These can relate to an organisation as well as the individual. Physiology for an organisation can be the basic necessities of a company. For example, a hotel must have a building capable of holding multiple rooms, electricity, heat, beds, and other basics. Security could be resources needed to continue the hotel business, such as employees, customers, and other resources. Loving and friendship could mean the employees relationships with each other, but even more importantly with the customer. Esteem could be an example of pride in ones work. Hotel employees coming to work and actually having pride in their job. Self actualisation is achieved with a successful company. For example, the Hilton hotels could claim self actualisation. 2) Apollo Culture (`Role Culture): ordered and structured organisation, operating within clearly defined and well-known rules and hierarchies; classic bureaucracy or public service organisation. 3) Athena Culture (`Task Culture): very different approach to the concept of management: emphasis is on achieving the task in hand through a problem-solving culture, with little concern about the organisational structure or rules; power and influence depends on expertise and achievement, and successful participation in team-work, not status in the organisation. 4) Dionysus (`Existential Culture): emphasis is on individualism, not on the organisation at all; the organisation exists only to enable the individual to achieve, not the other way round; typical organisational culture of professional practices such as a medical partnership or barristers chambers; no `boss at all in the normal sense, though for practical purposes one of the professionals will probably be elected or appointed by the group. (Handy, 13-36) Instead of directly describing all of these points

I Search Paper Essay Example for Free

I Search Paper Essay â€Å"Falling in love is like being thrown from a horse; if you let yourself go it doesn’t hurt as badly as if you try to save yourself.† This quote, quoted by Edwin Blanchard, gives you a little taste on the meaning of love. Love doesn’t have just one definition like many people believe, it has many definitions. Love is very complex and is needed by every human being. It doesn’t mean one has to be romantically involved with another person; love comes from people and things not realized by others. Friends, family, spouses, pets, and belongings are just some examples of love. This brings me to my most interesting discovery of the word â€Å"love†. Love is very important to everyone and is all around us. Even if you are a 40 year old man who has never been in a romantic relationship with anyone doesn’t mean you have never experienced love or the feeling of it because you can love anything. By researching this word I have realized that I need love and I know that I will always have some sort of love in my life. Whether it’s my family, friends, pets, or my favorite heels. There is an endless amount of love in this world we live in and there is plenty to go around. The biggest difficulty with this word was defining it. There are many thoughts and opinions on the definition of love. I don’t agree with all but I found one that I believe to be very true. To me love is seeing someone at his or her worst and their best and still loving them with all their heart. It is accepting the person for who they are and not changing them. Love also includes attraction, physical and mental, but most importantly it involves commitment, respect, loyalty, and trust. You can not force these things upon people, it is a natural thing. Love has a lot to do with fate, which I believe in. The only reason why love cannot be forced is because fate will always lead you to your true love. When you find that person, you will discover that the love you have for that them is like some kind of attachment. They become a part of you and your life. Everything you do, you consider that one person. Love is all about caring for others. When you love someone you will do anything to make him or her happy, even if it’s just the little things. You will try to reach out to them every way that you can because you know it will make them feel some type of joy. Why would you want to do that for just one person to feel happy? You do it because you care about them and love them. Care and love are perfect synonyms for each other. You love someone because you care about them and you care about someone because you love them. Those feelings cannot be controlled. It might sound great to be in love but there are also many negatives to being in love. There are many things in this world that are mistaken for love, and manipulated as the actual thing. One person can love another person more than the other person could love that person. Obstacles can often get in the way of love. They can sometimes kill a relationship and the love you had for one another. It’s all about fate; what’s meant to be, will be. And what’s not meant to be will only lead you one step closer to the fate that was chosen for you. But just remember that everyone will eventually find their one and true love and will live happily ever after.

Vouchers and School Choice - No Need to Separate Church and State Essay

School Choice: No Need to Separate Church and State Imagine that the fire department decided not to put out fires at synagogues and churches. Or imagine that the police decided not to answer calls from synagogues and churches. "So sorry," they say, "there's a wall of separation around your church, and we can't cross it to help you. Hire your own fire protection and your own security guards." This would rightly be seen as outrageous discrimination. Sure, the government shouldn't specially favor religious institutions, but the government shouldn't discriminate against them, either. The government should separate itself from religion by not caring whether a person or institution is religious -- by treating everyone equally regardless of their religious affiliation. The same is true of education, which is for many people the most valuable benefit that the state provides. The government shouldn't give more benefits to religious school students than it gives to students at secular schools, whether government-run or private. But why must it give anything less? The First Amendment doesn't require such discrimination against religion; it simply bars laws "respecting an establishment of religion." Equal treatment of everyone, without regard to religion, is not an establishment of religion. This is why the GI Bill, which let soldiers choose either a religious education or a secular one, was perfectly constitutional. It's why the government may give scholarships or student loans to al... ... voters can decide to help all children, without discriminating against those whose parents choose a religious education. My parents sent me to secular schools. If I have children, I'll probably send them to secular schools, too. But I know others have a different preference. They pay their taxes just like I do. The government may provide services for these people's kids on the same terms as it provides services for my kids. That's the true meaning of the Constitution, whether we're talking about police services, the fire department, the GI Bill, or elementary schools. Equality for all. Special benefits for none. Discrimination against none.

A Career In The Culinary Arts Essay

The culinary arts provide many career opportunities within the food service industry. As this industry has grown and prospered, a career in this field has become highly visible and offers the flexibility to work anywhere. Although a career in culinary arts requires extensive professional training and discipline, it offers a combination of challenging and creative work and can provide real job satisfaction. The culinary arts are open to anyone who loves food, cooking, and a challenge. Although the majority of chefs are men, women are gaining master chef status, which is the highest level they can achieve in culinary arts according to the American Culinary Federation (Donovan 1 and 18). This achievement comes after meeting strict requirements for experience, education, competition, and passing an exam. A chef must be skilled in cooking, baking, presentation, cold foods, and nutrition while working in various conditions (Donovan 18). Many kitchens have modern equipment, convenient work areas, and air conditioning. Older places may have marginally equipped and ventilated kitchens. Working conditions also depend on the type and quantity of food being prepared and local laws governing food operations (Donovan 18). see more:moose tobe A chef requires stamina as he must stand, lift heavy pots, pans, and kettles, and work near hot ovens and ranges (Chmelynski 47). Many chefs have earned fame for themselves and the places where they work due to their skills, but how did they get there? Cooking is a profession that emphasizes continuous learning. An increasing number of chefs are obtaining initial training through high school or post high school programs. Although a high school diploma is not required for beginning jobs in the culinary arts, it is highly recommended for a career as a chef (Chmelynski 25). Many two and four year colleges offer programs in the culinary arts. Many of the leading chefs agree that formal schooling is the best way to begin a career in the culinary arts (Peterson 15). Schools offer an opportunity to quickly gain fundamental knowledge of cooking techniques, nutrition and sanitation theory, and various foods. The type of training a chef receives is not exactly similar to other careers. Instead of all  classroom education, the trainee incorporates hands-on, practical work as an apprentice (Donovan 29). An apprenticeship is an on-the-job training program. â€Å"Typical apprenticeship programs entail completion of specific term (typically, three years or 6,000 hours) of full time employment for wages in a kitchen under a qulified chef† (Peterson 26). Besides a quality education, a career in the culinary arts demands dedication, perseverance, and hard work. A chef’s career usually starts at the bottom of the kitchen staff. Some trainees are surprised to find so much repetitive and boring work. The hours are long and demanding and the work is exhausting and highly stressful (Chmelynski VII). The chef must be able to work in a team setting while preparing food in all stages of production, possess a keen sense of taste and smell, be in good physical health, and have good personal hygiene. Most states require health certificates indicating that kitchen workers are free from contagious diseases (Chmelynski 26). The chef must learn how to handle stress and develop people skills, as he will have to coordinate kitchen operations with management and consistently satisfy customers. If a chef is comfortable with other people passing judgment on his work, then the rewards are numerous. â€Å"Pay rates of chefs vary depending on the part of the country and the type of establishment in which they work. Wages are generally higher in the west and in well-known places and hotels. Chefs in famous restaurants earn much more than the minimum rate of $40,000 a year with the additional benefits of health, dental, and life insurance and a profit sharing plan† (Donovan 51). The best benefits are satisfaction as a respected, skilled professional and the opportunity to travel and work in a variety of settings. Plenty of employment opportunities exist in the culinary arts. â€Å"There is a strong demand for talented, well-trained personnel within the food service industry. Approximately, 3.4 million chefs, cooks, and other kitchen workers were employed in 1996† (Chmelynski 48). Usually the kitchen staff is set up in the Traditional Brigade system with three levels- the entry, mid, and chef (Donovan 17). Entry-level positions are the kitchen apprentice and prep  person. They generally clean, trim, and prepare vegetables for stocks, soups, and salads (Donovan 25). Mid-level positions are line cooks working on the food line. The line chef’s titles are sautÃÆ' ©, broiler, vegetable, pantry, and pastry (Donovan 21). The top level is the head chef and sous chef (Donovan 17). The head chef is the authority in the kitchen and is responsible for all kitchen operations (Donovan 16). The sous chef is in charge of the kitchen when the head chef is away (Donovan 20). The size of kitchen staff depends on the type of establishment, variety of food items prepared, and the number of customers served (Donovan 20). However, no matter the size of the operation, advancement opportunities for chefs are better than other culinary art positions. Many chefs acquire higher paying positions and new cooking skills by moving from one job to another. Others advance to executive chef positions in hotels, clubs, and elegant restaurants (Chmelynski 27). A review of highly respected master chefs indicates there is no substitute for experience or education. Julia Child, master chef and author, trained at the famous Cordon Bleu School under the master chef Max Bugnard (Child 19). Paul Bocuse, a famous master chef, apprenticed to legendary French Chef Fernand Point (Bocuse 9). Emeril Lagasse, Commander’s Palace head chef in New Orleans, graduated from Johnson and Wales University in Denver with a degree in culinary arts (Lagasse xi). These chefs show the different ways to obtain a career in the culinary arts. In conclusion, a career in the culinary arts requires a foundation of basic skills and knowledge. It also requires extensive formal education with â€Å"hands-on† training, a desire to be the very best, discipline, and a creative imagination. This is an exciting time to be starting a career in the culinary arts. Not only does it provide a competitive salary, job security, and numerous benefits; it gives you the flexibility to work at national resorts, fine hotels, and exclusive restaurants. Throughout the country there is a strong demand for chefs that are well trained, talented, and creative. It might be interesting to explore the employment opportunities at the 2002 Winter Olympics at Salt Lake City, Utah.

Renaissance humanism

I naively assumed that none of this would be controversial, and I was quite unprepared for the hostility it provoked among some legates to the congress, chiefly from Northern Europe, who represented what I came to perceive as the Lutheran Establishment. This group was concerned to insist on the total originality of Luther and the uniquely German Origins of the Reformation. The paper would, I think, be more generally accepted today . It was first published in Luther and the Dawn of the Modern Era: Papers for the Fourth International Congress for Luther Research, De.H. A. Barman, Studies in the History of Christian Thought, Volvo. 8 (Elided: E. J. Brills, 1974), up. 127-149. It is reprinted here by permission of the publisher . Since the peculiar mixture of responsibility and presumption in the title of my paper will scarcely have escaped the notice of this distinguished audience, I feel some need to explain at the outset that it represents an assignment on the part of those who planne d our meeting.The significance of the problems to which it points is suggested by the great historians who have grappled with it in the past, albeit (a fact that should constitute something of a warning) with somewhat contrary results, among them Michelle, Diluted, and Throttles. [l] Its practical importance lies in the need of most of us to place our more limited inclusions in some broader historical framework; we must therefore reconsider, from ? 226 ? time to time, the relationship between Renaissance and Reformation.In spite of this, the subject has recently received little systematic attention, and many of us are still likely to rely, when we approach it, on unexamined and obsolete stereotypes. Obviously I cannot hope to remedy this state of affairs in a brief paper. Yet the progress of Renaissance studies in recent decades invites a reassessment of this classic problem, and I offer these remarks as an essay intended to stimulate further concussion. What has chiefly inhibited l arger generalization has been the extension and refinement of our knowledge, and with it a growth both in specialization and in humility.Thus we are increasingly reluctant to make broad pronouncements about either the Renaissance or the Reformation, much less about both at once. For as scholars we are divided not only between Renaissance and Reformation, or between Italy and Northern Europe; even within these categories most of us are specialists who would claim competence only in a particular aspect of Renaissance Florence or Venice, in one phase or another of Renaissance humanism, in Machiavelli or Erasmus, in later scholasticism or the history of piety, in Luther or Calvin or the sects.Under these conditions few students of the Renaissance have cared to look as far as the Reformation; and although Reformation scholars have been somewhat bolder, they have rarely pursued the question of Renaissance antecedents farther than northern humanism. Humanism is, indeed, the one subject tha t has recently encouraged forays into the problem of this paper; but although Barren, Devour, Spits, Libeling, and especially Charles Trinkets, among others, have made valuable intrusions to discussion,[2] the problem is still with us, primarily, I think, because we have not fully made up our minds about the meaning of Renaissance humanism.A result of this difficulty has been a tendency to focus special attention on Erasmus as a touchstone for the Renaissance, a role for which?for reasons that will emerge later in this paper?I think he is not altogether suited. It is, however, one measure of the complexity of our subject that we cannot approach the question of the relationship between Renaissance and Reformation without somehow first coming to terms with the implications of humanism. I should like to do so, however, obliquely rather than directly.It seems to me that although humanism, which assumed a variety of forms as it passed through successive stages and was influenced by diffe ring local conditions, was not identical with the more profound tendencies of Renaissance culture, it was nevertheless often likely to give them notable expression, and for reasons that were not accidental but directly related to the rhetorical tradition; whatever their ?227 ? differences in other respects, most recent interpretations of Renaissance humanism have at least identified it with a revival of rhetoric. ] What has been less generally recognized is the deeper significance of this revival. The major reason is, I think, that in our time the term rhetoric has become largely pejorative; we are inclined to couple it with the adjective mere. But for the Renaissance there was nothing shallow about rhetoric. Based on a set of profound assumptions about the nature, competence, and destiny of man, rhetoric gave expression to the deepest tendencies of Renaissance culture, tendencies by no meaner confined to men clearly identifiable as humanists, nor always fully expressed by men who h ave generally been considered humanists.I shall try in this paper to describe these tendencies, which seem to me to have exerted intolerable pressures on central elements in the medieval understanding of Christianity. And I will suggest that similar tendencies underlay the thought of the great Protestant Reformers. Thus the significance of Protestantism in the development of European culture lies in the fact that it accepted the religious consequences of these Renaissance tendencies and was prepared to apply them to the understanding of the Gospel.From this standpoint the Reformation was the theological fulfillment of the Renaissance. I Fundamental to the cultural movements of the Renaissance was a gradual accumulation of social and political changes: an economy increasingly dependent on commerce rather than agriculture; a political structure composed of assertive particular powers; and a society dominated by educated laymen who were increasingly restive under clerical direction and increasingly aggressive in pressing their own claims to dignity and self-determination.A commercial economy and the more and more openly uncoordinated conduct of politics supplied the social base for a new vision of man's place in the world, and of the world itself. Social experience rooted in the land had perhaps encouraged a sense of broad, natural regularities ultimately responsive to cosmic forces and inhibiting to a sense of the significance of change; but the life of a merchant community and the ambitious operations of independent rulers made all experience contingent on the interaction between unpredictable forces and the practical ingenuity and energies of men.Under these conditions the possibility of cosmic order seemed remote, but in any case of little relevance to human affairs; and the obvious rule of change in the empirical world encouraged efforts at its comprehension and eventually ? 228 ? stimulated the awareness of history, that peculiarly Hebraic and Christian?as opposed to Hellenic or Hellenic?contribution to the Western consciousness.Meanwhile new political realities and the claims of laymen undermined the hierarchical conceptions that had defined the internal structure of the old unified order of the cosmos, within which the affairs of this world had been assigned their proper place. [4] It will also be useful to observe at this point that these developments were by no meaner confined to Italy; I will touch briefly at a later point on the implications of this fact for the Renaissance problem.It is not altogether wrong to emphasize the positive consequences of these developments which, by freeing human activity from any connection with ultimate patterns of order, liberated an exuberance that found expression in the various dimensions of Renaissance creativity. Bureaucrat's insight that the autonomy of politics converted the prince into an artist of sorts may require modification; yet the new situation made all human arrangements potentiall y creative in a sense hardly possible so long as the basic principles of every activity were deduced from universal principles.The notion of the state as a work of art points to the general process of colonization and reminds us that the culture of the Renaissance extended far beyond its brilliant art and literature, and was perhaps even more significant in its implications than in its accomplishments. It had, however, another and darker side. It rested on the destruction of the sense of a definable relationship between man and ultimate realities. It severed his connection with absolute principles of order, not so much by denying their existence as by rejecting their accessibility to the human understanding.It deprived him of a traditional conception of himself as a being with distinct and organized faculties attuned to the similarly organized structure of an unchanging, and in this sense dependable, universe. Above all, therefore, it left him both alone in a mysterious world of unp redictable and often hostile forces, and at the same time personally responsible in the most radical sense for his own ultimate destiny. For he was now left without reliable principles and? because the directive claims of the church also depended heavily on the old conceptions?reliable agencies of guidance.These darker aspects of Renaissance culture eventually squired, therefore, a reformulation of Christian belief, and we shall now examine them a bit more closely. Renaissance thought has sometimes been represented as a reassertion of ancient rationalism against the supernaturalism of the Middle Ages. The formulation is, of course, both inaccurate and misleading. In the thirteenth century some intellectual leaders had been notably hospitable to Greek philosophy, and had tried to coordinate it with revelation.But ? 229 ? it was precisely the possibility of such coordination that Renaissance culture?insofar as it differed from what had preceded it?characteristically denied; in this se nse Renaissance thought was less rationalistic (if not necessarily less rational) than that of the Middle Ages. In fact it was inclined to distinguish between realms, between ultimate truths altogether inaccessible to man's intellect, and the knowledge man needed to get along in this world, which turned out to be sufficient for his purposes.Thus the Renaissance attack on scholasticism had a larger implication as well as a specific target; it implied, and occasionally led to, the rejection of all systematic philosophy. From Patriarch, through Salutation and Villa, to Machiavelli, Pompano, ND the Venetians of the later Renaissance, the leaders of Renaissance thought rejected any effort to ground human reflection or action on metaphysics: and at the same time they insisted on the autonomy of the various dimensions of human concern and the relativity of truth to the practical requirements of the human condition.In this sense, although truth was robbed of some grandeur, it was also made more human; and if Aristotle was less and less respected as a vehicle of eternal wisdom, he could be all the more admired as a man. [5] Under such conditions philosophy could evidently contribute nothing to theology; indeed, its virtual effects were likely to be adverse since it encouraged malice and pride. Related to the attack on metaphysical speculation was an attack on hierarchy, which rested ultimately on metaphysically based conceptions of the internal structure of all reality.The repudiation of hierarchy was most profoundly expressed in Nicholas of Cuss's conception of the infinite, which made every entity equally distant from?and thus equally near to?God;[6] a similar impulse perhaps lurks behind Villa's rejection of Pseudo-Dionysus. [7] But partly because the formulations of Susan smacked too such of metaphysics, partly because the problem of hierarchy was peculiarly related to social change, the attack on hierarchy was likely to receive more overtly social expression.It to ok a general form in the effort to substitute a dynamic conception of nobility through virtue for the static nobility of birth,[8] a specific form in the impulse (often expressed in legislation and the practical policies of states)[9] to consider the clergy in no way superior to other men but, on the contrary, as equal in the obligations of citizenship (if generally less competent in practical affairs), at least as alienable to sin, and in as desperate a need for salvation as other men, whom it was their obligation to serve rather than to command.This suggested at least that social order was unrelated to cosmic order, but it also raised the possibility that order per SE was of a kind quite different from what had been supposed. For the age of the Renaissance was by no meaner oblivious to the ? 230 ? need for order, which indeed historical disasters had converted into the most urgent of problems. But its very urgency intensified the necessity of regarding order as a practical rather than a metaphysical issue. Bitter experience seemed to demonstrate that order had to be brought down to earth, where it could be defined in limited and manageable ways.And, as the occasional intrusions of the clergy into politics appeared periodically to demonstrate, the attempt to apply ultimate principles to concrete problems was likely only to interfere with their practical solution. This was a central point not only for Machiavelli and his polities successors; it also molded the numerous constitutional experiments of the Renaissance, with their repudiation of hierarchically defined lines of authority in favor of order through a balance of interests and their appeal to immediate local needs and the right of local self- determination.The best arrangements, in these terms, were not those that most accurately reflected some absolute pattern but those that best served the specific and limited human purposes for which they were instituted. But although a sense of the limitation of the human intellect was basic to the thought of the Renaissance, this negation had a positive corollary in a new conception of the human personality which also seemed to correspond better to the experience supplied by a new social environment.Men whose lives consisted in the broad range of experiences, ontogenesis, and human relationships that characterized existence in the bustling and complicated modern world could no longer find plausible an abstract conception of man as a hierarchy of faculties properly subject to reason; instead the personality presented itself as a complex and ambiguous unity in which the will, primarily responsive to the passions, occupied a position at the center.One result of this conception was to undermine the contemplative ideal; if man's reason was weak but his will strong, he could only realize himself in this world through action, indeed he was meant for a life of action. Another was to reduce suspicion of the body; in the absence of the old psychologica l hierarchy, the body could no longer be held merely base and contemptible. Action required its use, and the new integrity of the personality reduced the possibility of attributing the human propensity to evil primarily to the physical or sensual aspect of man's nature.Human passions now also acquired a positive value, as the source of action. [10] This new anthropology, articulated by Patriarch, Salutation, and Villa, required a reconsideration of the problem of immortality and led eventually to the ardent discussions of the soul in which Pompano figured. It also pointed to the political and historical conceptions of Machiavelli and Caricaturing, who emphasized the primacy of will and passion, as well as to the psychological interests of a host of Renaissance writers. 11] ? 231 ? In addition man was defined as a social being; if he lost one kind of participation in a larger reality, namely his abstract position as a member of the human species in the cosmic hierarchy of being, he, obtained another with, perhaps, more tangible satisfactions: his membership as a concrete individual in the particular human community in which he lived, now an essential rather than an accidental condition of is existence. Thus the values of human community now achieved full recognition.Human virtue was defined not as an abstraction but as a function of relationship with other men; man's active nature was understood to achieve full expression only in a life of social responsibility, and indeed his happiness was seen as dependent on human community. Furthermore, since effective participation in society required some wealth, the conception struck another blow at medieval asceticism. On the other hand the demands of life in society also stimulated a vision of human existence very different from that implicit in the contemplative ideal.For life in society was patently marked by a conflict of opposing interests that could rarely (if men were honest) be identified with absolute good or e vil; and to incessant struggle with other men was added, in social existence, the temptations that inevitably beset anyone who chooses to engage with rather than to withdraw from the world. The life appropriate to men in this world was thus not repose (however desperately one might long for it) [12] but a constant and morally ambiguous warfare, with the outcome ever in doubt. By the same token earthly life had also to be seen as dynamic, as subject to change in all its aspects.Human communities could be seen to rise, flourish, and decay; and the philological investigations of Renaissance humanists supplemented common experience by revealing the general outlines of ancient civilization and thus demonstrating how much had changed during the intervening centuries. [13] They also wrote histories that communicated not only this perspective on the past, with its implication that human culture is not an absolute but relative to its times, but in addition other aspects of the Renaissance vi sion of life: the active and social nature of man, the values of community, the incapability of conflict and change.This vision found its fullest expression in the rhetorical culture of the Renaissance. Humanist oratory was based on the conception of man as a social being motivated by a will whose energies stemmed from the passions. This conception led in turn to a distinctive concern with communication as the essential bond of life in society, as well as to a new human ideal of the well-rounded, eloquent, and thus socially effective man of affairs.The purpose of communication, in this view, could not be the transmission of an absolute wisdom, which the human mind was incompetent to reach, but the attainment of concrete and practical ends. Ђ? 232 ? Such communication had above all to be persuasive; it had to affect the will by swaying the passions, rather than merely to convince the mind; in short it needed to penetrate to the center of the personality in order to achieve result s in visible acts. And the significance of the need for persuasion should also be remarked.It implied a life in society that could not be controlled by authority and coercion through a hierarchical chain of command but depended instead on the inward assent of individuals. It was therefore no accident that the rhetorical culture of Italian humanism achieved its fullest development in republics. In addition the needs of broad communication pointed eventually to the development and use of vernacular languages, a more important concern of Renaissance humanism than has sometimes been recognized. 14] II It should be immediately apparent that this set of attitudes imposed great strains on traditional Catholicism. [1 5] It undermined the effort to base earthly existence on abstract principles identified with divine wisdom, and to relate the visible and changing world of ordinary experience to the invisible and immutable realm of the spirit. Both the comforts in this relationship and its imp lications for the guidance and intro of lower things by higher were seriously threatened.From a Renaissance perspective the arguments by which it was supported seemed at best frivolous, at worst a specious rationalization of claims to power in this world on behalf of a group of men whose attention should be directed exclusively to the next. And behind such suspicions we may also discern the perception of man as primarily a creature of will and passion. In this light intellectual claims were likely to be construed as masks for motives that could not bear inspection; dogma itself might be no more than an instrument of tyranny.In addition, since a contemplative repose now seemed inappropriate to the actual nature of man, as well as a breach of responsibility for the welfare of others, the ideal form of the Christian life required redefinition. Finally, the problem of salvation was transformed. Alone in an ultimately unintelligible universe, and with the more fundamental conception of s in and the problems of its control opened up by the new anthropology, man could no longer count on the mediation either of reason or of other men in closer contact with the divine than himself.His salvation depended on an immediate and personal relation with God. Here it is necessary to pause for a more searching look at one of the key terms of our title: Renaissance . The conceptions I have so far reviewed ? 233 ? have been based largely on developments in Italy, and this would suggest a vision of the Renaissance, or of Renaissance culture, as initially and perhaps primarily an Italian affair.But this audience is well aware that the tendencies I have described were also present in a variety of movements outside Italy, if in somewhat different forms. It is obvious, for example, that later medieval piety exhibited similar impulses; ND that, in spite of the antipathy of humanists to scholastic speculation (though here we need to be more precise about what was actually under attack), t he later schoolmate played a major if largely independent part in bringing underlying assumptions to the surface and in attempting to accommodate theology to them. 16] Perhaps, therefore, the time has come to expand, as well as to make more specific, our conception of what was central to the age of the Renaissance, and also to abandon the traditional contrast between Italy and the North, which seems to me to eve been in some measure the result of a failure to get beneath surface differences.If I have concentrated on Italian thought in this sketch, I have done so partly to bring out the fundamental unity of European spiritual development, partly because the affinities between Protestantism and later Scholasticism have been more regularly a concern of Reformation scholarship than the parallels with the Renaissance in Italy. What is nevertheless increasingly clear is that the process of redefining Christianity to bring it into correspondence with the new assumptions about man and the w orld as gradual, and that it was taking place simultaneously throughout Europe.Largely because of the recent profound book of Charles Trinkets, it is unnecessary to review in detail the process by which the pressures for religious change implicit in the assumptions of Renaissance culture operated among the humanists of Italy. They are already discernible in Patriarch, and they seem to have reached a climax in Lorenz Villa. In a general sense they may be attributed to the special loneliness and despair of men who could no longer regard religious truth as a body of knowledge of the name order as other knowledge that was communicable through similar kinds of intelligible discourse.Nor could the institutional fiddles encouraged by ecclesiastical authority as an alternative to rational theology provide a satisfactory solution to the problem. Not only did the idea of implicit faith clash with the growing sense of individual spiritual dignity among pious laymen; in addition, discredited by its impotence, its worldliness, the presumed irrelevance of its abstract theology, and a sacramental and disciplinary externalities increasingly inadequate to assuage the secularly intense guilt of the age, the church could no longer be regarded as a dependable guarantor of truth. Ђ? 234 ? Thus, driven by a profound yearning for immediate contact with the eternal,[17] the humanists of the early Italian Renaissance moved perceptibly toward a simple religion of grace based on the Scriptures and apprehended by the individual through faith. Patriarch typically began with insights into his own inner conflicts and the discovery that these could only be resolved by throwing himself on God's mercy in a faith that was at once the highest form of knowledge and at the same time different n kind from all other knowledge; confusion on this point seemed to him the most dangerous error.Salutation, concerned as a sterner moralist to protect human freedom and responsibility within a religion of grace, wrestled with the problem of predestination. And with Villa Justification by faith received an even fuller exploration, the role of priest and sacrament in the economy of salvation was correspondingly reduced, and that of Scripture, the Word whose authenticity could be established by philology and which spoke directly to the individual, was enlarged. 18] Corresponding to the distinction between philosophy and faith was the demand or a sharper distinction between the church and the world; the separation of realms in one area seemed to lead naturally to separation in others. In its demands for a spiritual church, the new historicism of the Renaissance collaborated with the insistence of the Italian states on freedom from clerical interference and with their grievances against Rome as a political force. [19] The study of the historical church revealed the spiritual costs of the confusion of realms. 20] At the very least, as men of the Renaissance with some political experience were in a position to know, the effective use of power in the world was always morally ambiguous;[21] and meanwhile the growing participation of popes and prelates in secular politics had been accompanied by an increasing neglect of the spiritual mission of the church. Thus, if reform required a return to the past, the reason was above all that the early church had been true to its spiritual characters. [22] Only a spiritual church, devoted to that which does not change, could stand above history and thus resist decay.Villa's attack on the Donation of Constantine was not an isolated document;[23] it fleets a concern with the church, its earthly role and its spiritual mission, that runs through much of Renaissance historiography, from Muscat at the beginning of the fourteenth century to Machiavelli, Caricaturing, and Far Paolo Carpi. [24] The rediscovery of grace was closely related to the new vision of man; philosophy, as Patriarch recognized, was incapable of converting man at the crucial center of his being. â€Å"It is one thing to know,† he declared, â€Å"another to love; one thing to understand, another to will. What was required was a transformation not merely of the intellect but of the ? 235 ? hole personality, so that Christian conversion would find appropriate expression in a life of love and active responsibility for the welfare of others. And, as in the world, the essential meaner for such a transformation was not rational appeal to the intellect but rhetorical appeal to those deeper levels in man that alone could move the will. Thus Patriarch argued for the superiority over rational philosophers of moral teachers who could sow the love of virtue in the very hearts of men. 25] For Villa rhetoric was thus the only branch of secular learning (except for philology) applicable to theology. 26] The implications of this position for the importance and character of preaching seem clear. A new conception of man was also reflected in a changed conc eption of God, in accordance, perhaps, not only with Renaissance emphasis on man's creation in God's likeness and image but also with Calling's recognition of the reciprocal relationship between man's understanding of himself and his knowledge of God. 27] Like man, God could no longer be perceived as a contemplative being, as Aristotle unmoved mover, operating in the universe not directly but through a research of intermediate powers. [28] Laymen active in the world required a God who was also active, who exercised a direct and vigilant control over all things, like that to which they aspired for themselves.God too had therefore to be perceived as primarily will, intellectually beyond man's grasp yet revealing something of himself? all, at any rate, that man needed to know?in his actions, above all as recorded in Holy Scripture. And from Patriarch's sense of the free, mysterious, and incalculable nature of God,[29] Salutation went on to defend the anthropomorphic representations f G od in the Bible as a form of communication appropriate to men's capacities. [30] Villa was, as one might expect, even clearer that the God of philosophy could not be the God of faith. 31] In spite of all this, it is nevertheless undeniable that the culture of the Italian Renaissance did not culminate in Protestantism, although even on this point our old sense of the immunity of Italy to the impulses of the Reformation is no longer altogether tenable. [32] Yet it remains true that the religious thought of Renaissance Italy remained no more than an incoherent bundle of monumental insights, and it was unable to rid itself of fundamental contradictions; again, however, the contrast with Northern Europe seems hardly absolute.Above all it failed to complete its conviction of man's intellectual limitations, which pushed him only part of the way into the realm of grace, with full conviction of his moral impotence. Even here its vision of man suggests a deepening in the understanding of sin and the human obstacles to salvation; and there is abundant evidence of a pessimistic estimate of the human condition in Patriarch, Salutation, Pogo, Villa, and later, in a different form, in Machiavelli andCaricaturing. Yet Renaissance emphasis on the central importance of the will frequently served chiefly to nourish the moralist that so deeply permeated later medieval piety,[33] contributing both to the notion of Christianity as the pursuit of moral perfection and of the church as essentially a system of government; [34] Renaissance humanism remained, in Lather's sense, Appealing.The consequence was, however, that Renaissance culture in Italy, like Scholastic theology in the north, helped to intensify, from both directions at once, the unbearable tension between he moral obligations and the moral capacities of the Christian that could at last find relief only in either a repudiation of Renaissance attitudes or the theology of the Reformation. But it could not resolve the problem itself, and we must ask why this was so. Part of the explanation is connected with the fact that some among the figures we have cited were lacking in theological interests, while the rest were amateurs whose major activity lay elsewhere.The result was an inability to develop the full implications of their assumptions, which was supplemented by prejudice against intellectual labor too closely resembling the Scholasticism they despised. In addition, closely attached to particular societies in which, traditionally, no distinction was made between Christianity and citizenship, they were unable to ach